Footnotes are the heart of the Turabian Notes and Bibliography system. Every time you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, a superscript number in the text points readers to the corresponding footnote at the bottom of the page where they’ll find the source information they need to locate the original.
The format isn’t overly complicated, but it does have a lot of moving parts. This guide covers everything: the full footnote format for each source type you’re likely to use most, first citations vs. shortened citations, multiple sources in one note, and the formatting details that often trip up students.
How footnotes work in Turabian
In the Notes and Bibliography system, you insert a superscript number in your text whenever you use a source. The number corresponds to a footnote at the bottom of the same page. Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout the paper. The first citation is 1, the second is 2, and so on. The numbering never resets between chapters or sections.
The superscript number in the text goes after any punctuation, including periods, commas, and closing quotation marks. This is one of the most common placement errors in Turabian papers.
Correct: “The creature was observed near the loch.”1
Incorrect: “The creature was observed near the loch1.”
Footnotes vs. endnotes
Turabian permits either footnotes (at the bottom of each page) or endnotes (collected at the end of the paper or end of each chapter). The citation format is identical for both. The only difference is placement.
Footnotes are standard for most student papers and preferred by most instructors because they allow readers to check a source without flipping to the end of the document. Endnotes are more common in published books. Unless your instructor or institution specifies otherwise, use footnotes.
The first footnote citation
The first time you cite a source, provide the full publication information. The format varies by source type, but the general structure for a book is:
First Name Last Name, Title of Work (Place of Publication: Publisher, Year), page number.
A few key differences between footnote format and bibliography format:
- The author’s name is in normal order (First Last) in footnotes, not inverted (Last, First) as in the bibliography.
- Publication details are in parentheses in footnotes.
- Footnotes include the specific page number cited; bibliography entries include the full page range for articles.
- Footnotes end with a period.
Book
- Alastair MacGregor, The Loch Ness Monster: A History of the Legend (Edinburgh: Highland Academic Press, 2019), 45.
Journal article
- Fiona Campbell, “Sonar evidence and aquatic cryptids in Scottish lochs,” Journal of Cryptozoological Studies 12, no. 3 (2021): 115.
Of note: article titles go in quotation marks; journal titles are italicized. There are no parentheses around the publication information for journal articles.
Chapter in an edited volume
- Duncan Fraser, “The 1933 sightings: Setting the record straight,” in Cryptids of the British Isles, ed. Moira Sinclair (Glasgow: Caledonian Press, 2020), 78.
Website
- Eilidh Ross, “Underwater Photography and the Nessie Question,” Loch Ness Research Foundation, 2023, https://www.example.com/underwater-photography
For websites, include the author (if known), the title of the page in quotation marks, the name of the site, a publication or last-modified date if available, and the URL. No period follows the URL.
Shortened footnote citations
After the first full citation, all subsequent references to the same source use a shortened form. The shortened citation includes:
- Author’s last name only
- A shortened version of the title (if needed to distinguish from other works by the same author)
- The page number
Shortened citation examples
- MacGregor, Loch Ness Monster, 78.
- Campbell, “Sonar Evidence,” 119.
- Fraser, “1933 Sightings,” 82.
A few rules for shortened titles: shorten to the first noun phrase, retaining the original formatting – italics for books and journals, quotation marks for articles and chapters. Turabian recommends omitting any initial article (a, an, the) from the shortened title, though this is a matter of style rather than a strict rule. PERRLA retains articles in shortened citations.
If you’re only citing one work by an author, you can omit the title from the shortened citation entirely and give just the last name and page number. If you’re citing multiple works by the same author, the shortened title is essential for distinguishing between them.
Using ibid.
When two consecutive footnotes cite the same source, you can use ibid (from the Latin ibidem, meaning “in the same place”) in place of the full shortened citation. If the page number is the same, use ibid alone. If the page number differs, add the new page number.
Example
- MacGregor, Loch Ness Monster, 92.
- Ibid. (same page)
- Ibid., 94. (different page)
A few important cautions about ibid:
- Ibid. only works for consecutive footnotes. If any other source intervenes, you must use the shortened citation form instead.
- Ibid. is always capitalized at the start of a footnote and always ends with a period.
- Some style guides and instructors discourage ibid because it forces readers to search backward through footnotes. When in doubt, check with your instructor.
Note: PERRLA does not currently generate ibid. automatically. If you use ibid. in your paper, you’ll need to enter it manually in the footnote.
Multiple sources in one footnote
When a single statement is supported by more than one source, you can combine them in a single footnote. Separate the citations with semicolons.
Example
- MacGregor, Loch Ness Monster, 45; Campbell, “Sonar Evidence,” 115; Ross, “Underwater Photography.”
Content notes and explanatory notes
Not every footnote has to be a citation. Turabian also allows content notes, footnotes that provide supplementary information, context, or commentary that would interrupt the flow of the main text if included there.
A content note might:
- Define a technical term used in the text
- Acknowledge a counterargument or competing interpretation
- Provide background information relevant but not central to the main argument
- Direct readers to additional sources on a related topic
Content notes follow the same numbering sequence as citation notes. They can stand alone or can combine a source citation with additional commentary.
Note: PERRLA supports adding content notes alongside a citation within a footnote. Standalone content notes — those not attached to a citation — would need to be added manually.
Footnotes for direct quotes vs. paraphrases
Both direct quotations and paraphrases require footnotes in Turabian. The footnote format is the same either way – what changes is the page number. For a direct quote, cite the specific page. For a paraphrase of a general argument or idea spread across multiple pages, you may cite a range: MacGregor, Loch Ness Monster, 45–48.
For a direct quote, the footnote number appears after the closing quotation mark (and after any other punctuation).
Common Turabian footnote mistakes
- Placing the superscript before punctuation – the number always comes after periods, commas, and closing quotation marks.
- Using bibliography format in the footnotes – author names are in normal order (First Last) in footnotes, not inverted.
- Forgetting the page number – every footnote citation must include the specific page cited.
- Using ibid. after a non-consecutive citation – ibid. only works when the immediately preceding footnote cites the same source.
- Omitting the shortened title when citing multiple works by the same author – without it, the reader can’t tell which work is being cited.
- Adding a period after a URL – URLs should be left clean
- Forgetting that footnotes end with a period – every footnote, whether a full citation, shortened citation, or content note, ends with a period (unless there’s a URL at the end).
Format Turabian footnotes with PERRLA
PERRLA supports the Turabian 9 Notes and Bibliography version, building correctly formatted first citations and shortened citations automatically as you write. Select the Turabian 9 format when you create your paper, add your references, and PERRLA handles the footnote structure for you. Note that ibid, standalone content notes, and endnotes are not currently supported by PERRLA and would need to be added manually if required (and should you need any help doing so, please reach out to the PERRLA Customer Support Team – they’ll be glad to help). Try PERRLA free for 7 days – no credit card required.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between a footnote and a bibliography entry in Turabian?
Footnotes list the author’s name in normal order (First Last), put publication details in parentheses, and include a specific page number. Bibliography entries invert the author’s name (Last, First), omit parentheses around publication details, and include the full page range for articles rather than a specific page. The two formats are substantially different and should never be interchanged.
When do I use a shortened citation vs. ibid.?
If your instructor permits the use of ibid., use it only when the footnote immediately before it cites the same source. If any other source appears between two citations of the same work, use the shortened citation instead.
Do I need a footnote for paraphrased ideas?
Yes. Footnotes are required any time you use someone else’s ideas, whether you quote them directly or restate them in your own words.
How do I shorten a title in a Turabian footnote?
Shorten to the first noun phrase. Turabian recommends omitting any initial article (a, an, the) from the shortened title, though this is a matter of style rather than a strict rule — and PERRLA retains articles in shortened citations. Keep the original formatting – italics for books and journals, quotation marks for articles and chapters. If you're only citing one work by an author, you can omit the title from the shortened citation altogether.
Can a footnote contain more than a citation?
Yes. Turabian permits content notes, footnotes that provide supplementary information, definitions, or commentary. A note can combine a citation with additional commentary, or it can stand alone as explanatory text with no citation at all.
Should I use footnotes or endnotes?
Footnotes are standard for most student papers and preferred by most instructors. Unless your instructor or institution specifies endnotes, use footnotes.
Note: PERRLA currently supports footnotes only. If your instructor requires endnotes, you’ll need to manage those manually outside of PERRLA’s formatting.